Proteus 8 Professional is a very useful electronic software for the users of the world of electronics , students and professional...
Timing Diagram Notation Conventions
Timing notation is illustrated in Figure 1. The timing notation used in manufacturers' data sheets may vary from this, but is usually v...
Bus of Microprocessor/Microcontroller
There are three groups of signals, or buses, that connect the CPU to the other major components. The buses are: Data bus Address bus Co...
The AVR Data Memory
In AVR microcontrollers there are two kinds of memory space: code memory space and data memory space. Our program is stored in code memory ...
Overview of The AVR Family
The basic architecture of AVR was designed by two students of Norwegian Institute of Technology (NTH), Alf-Egil Bogen and Vegard Wollan...
Design Methodology
The interconnection between the CPU, memory, and I/O of the address and data buses is generally a one-to-one connection. The hard part is d...
Mechanical Switches
Mechanical switches are useful for direct input to digital circuits. One of the more convenient versions is a bank of rocker switches pac...
Multiplexed Bus
In order to describe the timing of such a shared data bus, it is necessary to define some notation for timing diagrams. The notation used...
Tri-State Logic
Tri-state logic does not refer to orderly thinking in a three state geographic region! When we speak of binary (base two number) values, ...
CMOS logic
CMOS logic ( complementary symmetry MOS ) is another form of MOS logic. It has advantages over NMOS logic for low power circuitry and for...
NMOS Logic
The conductive state of the FET's channel is what allows or prevents current from flowing in the device. For a typical logic N-channe...
The FET as a Logic Switch
Most of the logic devices used in highly integrated circuits do not use bipolar transistors. Instead, they use field effect transistors....
Transistor Switch OFF
When the input is connected to logic zero (ground voltage), no current flows into the base of the transistor, since its base and emitter t...
Transistor Switch ON
Transistors can be configured to function as switches. As can be seen in figure bellow, an NPN transistor operating as a current controlled ...
Digital Hardware Concepts
In addition to the CPU, memory, and I/O building blocks, other logic circuits may also be required. Such logic circuits are frequently re...
The Design and Development Process
Structured design of a microcomputer requires the ability to do the system design and partitioning from the top down while implementing th...
Logic Symbols
Logic symbols are used to represent the logic functions in a more abstract way, allowing the designer to specify the logical function of a...
Microcomputer and Microcontroller Architectures
Microprocessors are generally utilized for relatively high performance applications where cost and size are not critical selection criter...
Diode
The diode is a simple semiconductor device acting as a "one way" current valve. It only lets current flow in one direction. F...
Transistors
The flow analogy can also be used to model how a transistor operates in a logic circuit. The transistor is an amplifier. It uses a small a...
Voltage, Current, and Resistance
Fig 1. Voltage in an electrical circuit is analogous to pressure in a fluid. In figure 1, a battery provides a voltage source for e...
Timing Diagrams
The timing diagram is the standard "language" of illustrating timing relationships between different parts of a design. In ord...
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